play_arrow

keyboard_arrow_right

skip_previous play_arrow skip_next
00:00 00:00
playlist_play chevron_left
volume_up
chevron_left
play_arrow

Featured

Lactate in Sepsis

Dr Swapnil Pawar December 14, 2020 1941


Background
share close
  • cover play_arrow

    Lactate in Sepsis
    Dr Swapnil Pawar

Blog Written by – Dr Jose Chacko

Lactic acidosis commonly occurs in critically ill patients, especially among those in shock of varying etiology. High lactate levels are uniformly associated with poor clinical outcomes, including mortality.1 However, there is considerable interest and conflict of opinion regarding the clinical value of using lactate levels to guide resuscitation in critically ill patients. Although generally considered to be a marker of tissue hypoxia, the etiology of hyperlactatemia in the critically ill may be multifactorial.

Lactate production and metabolism

Lactate is generated at the rate of 0.8 mmol/kg/hour (1300 mmol/day) and the normal plasma level is 0.3–1.3 mmol/l. Lactate production occurs in the skeletal muscle, intestines, brain, and erythrocytes. In the glycolytic pathway, glucose is oxidized to pyruvate with the generation of NADH from NAD. The pyruvate is metabolized in the mitochondria by the aerobic pathway through the Krebs cycle. The metabolism of each molecule of pyruvate results in the generation of 36 molecules of ATP. Under anaerobic conditions, the pyruvate does not enter the mitochondria; instead, it is converted to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase in the cytosol, with the regeneration of NAD from NADH (Fig).  The concentrations of lactate and pyruvate are maintained at a 10:1 equilibrium by lactate dehydrogenase.

The lactate generated is transported to the liver, where it is oxidized to pyruvate. The pyruvate is converted back to glucose through gluconeogenesis and re-enters the glycolytic pathway (Fig). The liver clears 70% of the generated lactate, mainly through gluconeogenesis and partly by oxidation to carbon dioxide and water. Tissues rich in mitochondria including skeletal and cardiac muscle, and the proximal tubular tubules of the kidney eliminate the remaining lactate by conversion to pyruvate. The kidneys excrete less than 5% of the lactate produced.

Causes of an increase in lactate levels

Being the predominant metabolic pathway of lactate, impairment of liver function results in raised lactate levels. Any increase in the rate of glycolysis results in the generation of high levels of pyruvate. The pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme may be overwhelmed by excessive pyruvate levels; this results, in turn, to the conversion of pyruvate to lactate by the lactate dehydrogenase enzyme. Accelerate glycolysis occurs in hypermetabolic states including fever, thyrotoxicosis, and the use of beta-agonist drugs such as adrenaline. This may be the mechanism of causation of lactic acidosis in patients with acute severe asthma who are treated with high-dose beta-adrenergic bronchodilators. Thus, lactate levels may continue to rise in a patient with severe asthma who is clinically improving with the alleviation of bronchospasm. Mitochondrial dysfunction leads to failure of the aerobic pathway of metabolism. Thiamine is a crucial cofactor in the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA. Thiamine deficiency can inhibit this reaction, and lead to the conversion of pyruvate to lactate. Ischemic tissues, including gut ischemia, may lead to the generation of high levels of lactate. Toxins that poison the mitochondria including cyanide and carbon monoxide can lead to failure of the aerobic pathway and result in lactic acidosis. Biguanides may also lead to excessive lactate levels through inhibition of hepatic gluconeogenesis. Respiratory alkalosis may lead to movement of intracellular lactate to the extracellular fluid and lead to elevated lactate levels in the plasma.2

D-Lactate Vs L-Lactate – 

The two lactate isomers are known as L-lactate and D-lactate; L-lactate rotates light clockwise (+) and D-lactate rotates light counterclockwise (-). This is reflected in the sometimes used nomenclature: D(-) lactate and L(+) lactate.

Both forms (stereoisomers) of lactate are produced from and metabolized to pyruvate by the action of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). However, the enzyme is isomer-specific so that production and metabolism of D-lactate require D-LDH and L-lactate requires L-LDH.

the small amount of D-lactate normally present in the blood is derived from three sources:

  • cellular production by the methylglyoxal pathway
  • diet (foods containing D-lactate, e.g. yoghurts, soured cream, cheese)
  • lactate-producing bacterial species normally resident in the large intestine (colon).

What is the source of lactate in sepsis?

If tissue hypoxia and anaerobic metabolism is not the primary source raised lactate levels in sepsis, what may be the mechanisms of hyperlactatemia in septic shock?

There may be an inhibition of mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase activity in sepsis, the enzyme that converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA prior to its entry into the Krebs cycle. This results in the selective conversion of pyruvate to lactate, and hyperlactatemia. The administration of dichloroacetate, a drug that enhances pyruvate dehydrogenase activity has been shown to reduce lactate levels in animal models and human studies.12 Besides, accelerated aerobic glycolysis occurs in sepsis, leading to the generation of excessive pyruvate. High pyruvate levels overwhelm the capability of the pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme for the conversion to acetyl CoA. Hence, the alternate pathway may dominate, with the conversion of pyruvate to lactate by the lactate dehydrogenase enzyme.

Opdam et al. performed an observational study among patients who underwent cardiopulmonary bypass and in patients with septic shock. They measured pulmonary oxygen consumption and lactate release from the lung. In this study, a substantial release of lactate was observed from the lung related to inflammation associated with cardiopulmonary bypass and sepsis.13 Thus, the lung may be the source of hyperlactatemia in patients with severe sepsis.

Endogenous release of excessive catecholamines or their administration for hemodynamic support may lead to hyperlactatemia through increased activity of the Na+/K+–ATPase pump due to β2-receptor stimulation. This results in cyclic AMP release, with stimulation of accelerated glycogenolysis and glycolysis, leading to excessive pyruvate generation. When pyruvate levels continue to rise, increased conversion to lactate occurs, leading to hyperlactatemia. A hypermetabolic state characterized by excessive release of catecholamines may be the trigger for hyperlactatemia in sepsis. 

We often see lactate levels rise with the use of catecholamine support, particularly with epinephrine infusion. However, the hyperlactatemia induced by catecholamine support does appear to lead to worse outcomes. A retrospective analysis evaluated the survival of patients in shock in relation to the rise in lactate levels following commencement of epinephrine infusion.  Survivors had a greater increase in lactate levels following the initiation of epinephrine support compared to non-survivors. Thus, the failure of lactate levels to rise significantly following epinephrine infusion may be associated with poor outcomes.14

Although not the sole reason for hyperlactatemia, tissue hypoxia may occur in sepsis leading to stimulation of anaerobic metabolism and rise in lactate levels. Besides, the failure of microcirculatory flow may also occur in sepsis. Indeed, studies on animal models suggest that inhibition of oxygen transport in early sepsis may likely result from microcirculatory dysfunction.15

Lactate clearance

Lactate “clearance” has been suggested as a target to guide resuscitation in septic patients. However, it is important to note that clearance of substance denotes the extent of its removal from a unit volume over unit time. Clearly, in severe sepsis, lactate levels may decrease through mechanisms unrelated to its removal, including decreased generation, or dilution consequent to fluid resuscitation.

Summary

  • High lactate levels in critically ill patients correlate with the severity of illness and strongly predicts mortality
  • However, contrary to popular belief, the main reason for lactate rise in patients with severe sepsis is not tissue dysoxia and stimulation of anaerobic metabolism. On the contrary, in most patients with sepsis, tissue dysoxia does not occur
  • The origin of hyperlactatemia in sepsis is multifactorial, including accelerated glycolysis, a hypermetabolic state, and impaired activity or relative deficiency of pyruvate dehydrogenase. The lung may also be a lactate generator in sepsis
  • Under situations of stress, lactate acts as metabolic fuel through oxidation and conversion to pyruvate and glucose in the liver
  • The use of serum lactate levels as an endpoint to guide resuscitation may not represent the ideal approach in septic patients
Rate it
Previous episode
RICH Trial – Regional Citrate vs Systemic Heparin Anticoagulation for CRRT
eCritCare Podcast
play_arrow
share playlist_add
close
  • 1679

Featured

RICH Trial – Regional Citrate vs Systemic Heparin Anticoagulation for CRRT

Dr Swapnil Pawar November 26, 2020

Effect of Regional Citrate Anticoagulation vs Systemic Heparin Anticoagulation During Continuous Kidney Replacement Therapy on Dialysis Filter Life Span and Mortality Among Critically Ill Patients With Acute Kidney InjuryA Randomized […]

Read more trending_flat

Similar episodes